Multicultural Team Creates Frustrating Management Situation

1.Main purpose of the article: Multicultural team often creates frustrating management situation. To solve conflicts caused by cultural differences in a multicultural team, identifying cultural problems and having different strategies for solution is important. 2.Most important information in this article: There are many conflicts that is caused by different culture in our workplace. For example: 1. An American manager was leading a project in Japan, when she pointed out the problem directly to her boss in an email without discussing them first with her Japanese colleagues, even though her boss was happy of the direct warnings, her Japanese colleagues was embarrassed by her direct style of communication. Subsequently, her Japanese colleague isolated her from overseeing project progress. 2. A Latin American member of multicultural consulting team felt that because of the language difference, although her skill level is subpar with his American colleague and has a good question for the interview, her American colleague tend to lead the interview with the client. During an interview of a U.S-Japanese team for the potential of expansion of U.S retail chain into Japan, her American colleague tend to underestimate the feedback from the Japanese consultants because they are not fluent in English and considered them not intelligent enough. He disregards the aspects that Japanese know Japan’s business situation better than him. 3. In Mexican culture, even though managers understandShow MoreRelatedMulticulturism1524 Words   |  7 Pagesarticle â€Å"Managing Multicultural Teams† (henceforth referred as core article) are of the opinion that cultural differences are sometimes capable of exacerbating challenges associated with effective team work. With the belief that multiculturism is timely need of 21st century, this essay strongly emphasises that multicultural teams often generate frustrating management dilemmas and works on solutions that a manger could implement to tackle this problem. A diverse or multicultural team by definitionRead MoreTechnology Roadmapping1361 Words   |  6 Pages Brett, Behfar amp; Kern (2006) argued that multi-cultural groups usually fall into troubles on management. It would likely be difficult to refuse this opinion, and, definitely, this opinion makes good sense in some views. Cultural differences can leads to loss of productivity and can have negative impact on company moral. It is imperative that leaders need to learn more about how to manage a team with cultural differences. Not everyone has the skills in interacting with colleagues from otherRead MoreLeading Culture Change at Seagram1211 Words   |  5 PagesNUS Business School, semester 2 2012/2013 Change Management Leading Culture Change at Seagram Why did Seagram need to Change? Why did it use a values based approach? In the mid-nineties, Seagram’s core market, the spirits and wine business, had stalled. At the same time its CEO, Edgar Bronfman Jr. (Bronfman) sold their 25% stake in the chemical giant DuPont. This was the payment from when Seagram’s in 1982 sold the oil company Conoco to DuPont. This stake in DuPont, by 1995, representedRead MoreStrengthss Reflective Paper2158 Words   |  9 PagesPrograms GM 600 Management Principles Kristen O’Connell, Ed. D. April 15, 2015 Contents Introduction 3 My Five Strengths 3 Achiever 3 Harmony 4 Futuristic 5 Restorative 6 Responsibility 6 How do your Strengths Finder talents support the primary planning, organizing, leading, and controlling activities of a manager? 7 Which Strengths Finder talents would you focus personal development activities on if you would pursue a management position or improve in your management current positionRead MoreNegotiating For Your Employer?1644 Words   |  7 Pagestactics that are very different can be quite frustrating. However, becoming aware of how certain countries respond or react will make business transactions run smoother. These two countries negotiate differently. However, it does not make one cultural superior to the next. Knowing this information about the culture ahead of time brings incite on who needs to sit in on what meetings. It also says who needs to be the negotiator depending on the situation and the need for the business. Knowing certainRead MoreCross- Cultural Communication2005 Words   |  9 Pagestwo factors that have raised the importance of Cross-Cultural Communication can be stated as follows- †¢ Improvements in communication and transportation technology have made it possible for previously stable cultures to meet in unstructured situations, e.g. the internet opens lines of communication without mediation, while budget airlines transplant ordinary citizens into unfamiliar milieux(the social and cultural environment in which a person or thing exists). Experience proves that merely crossingRead MoreNational Basketball Association Is Not A Diverse Sport Essay2001 Words   |  9 Pagesthe NBA for the 2014/2015 season was 5.18 billion dollars, this is due to the organizational diversity of the NBA. The National Basketball Association consists of 30 teams. Each team has a head coach. A team can have 15 players on a team, 13 of the 15 can be active. In the 2014-2015 season there were 446 players playing on times 30 teams. Of those 446 players, the percent of players who were classified as African-American or Black in the league was 74.4 percent (332), White players made up 23.3 percentRead MorePrinciples and Practices of Management2971 Words   |  12 Pagesnot only train and develop employees but create relationships and boost morale within the organization as well. A customer service representative may benefit most by podcasting and classroom. Podcasting would allow the workers to go through scenario based lessons on a computer. Being able to see the different ways to properly handle a situation on the computer can increase their problem solving skills. A classroom discussion on handling certain situations may also greatly benefit workers as wellRead MoreThe Nature of Communic ation10702 Words   |  43 Pageswhom you want to do with business with and add to your network. The success of any encounter begins the moment someone lays eyes on you. One of the first things they notice about you is your aura, that distinctive atmosphere that surrounds you. You create it, and you are responsible for what it says about you and whom it attracts. Your aura enters with you and starts speaking long before your open your mouth. Since body language conveys more than half of any message in any face-to-face encounter, howRead MoreCase Study on Ibm7721 Words   |  31 PagesSTraTEGIc Hr ManaGEMEnT case study–PaRt a IBM’s Global Talent Management Strategy: The Vision of the Globally Integrated Enterprise By John W. Boudreau, Ph.D. Project team Author: SHRM project contributor: External contributors: John W. Boudreau, Ph.D. Nancy A. Woolever, SPHR Randy MacDonald Richard Calo Michelle Rzepnicki Katya Scanlan Jihee Lombardi Copy editing: Design:  © 2010 Society for Human Resource Management. John W. Boudreau, Ph.D. Development of this case was made possible by a grant

The Principles of Power and Conflict in relationship

Tiffany Carlos Mr. Baker Communication 2 4 Nov. 2013 The Principles of Power and Conflict in Relationships As relationships are formed we establish power dominances in any kind of relationship such as friendship, love, family, and in the workplace. I believe that the roles of who has power are changing in every type of relationship. Change might be welcome but as roles are changing not all support changes in the relationships such as in the workplace, and family. The principle of power comes in play most of the time in a workplace enlivenment. Since there are different types of relationship there are different role, rules, and characteristics in every relationship. Characteristics in relationships such as a relationship of love,†¦show more content†¦Although there are many theories of love, the conceptualization that captured attention of interpersonal researchers and continues to receive research support is a model proposing that there are not one but six types of love (Lee, 1976; Kanemasa, Taniguchi, Daibo Ishimori, 2004). Eros: beauty and sexuality, like narcissus that fell in love with the beauty of his own image, the erotic lover focuses on beauty and physical attractiveness. Ludus: entertainment and excitement, love is experienced as a game, as fun. Storage: peaceful and slow, lacks passion and intensity. Pragma: practical and traditional, practical and seeks a relationship that will work. Mania: elation and depression, characterized by extreme highs and extreme lows. Agape: compassionate and selfless, egoless, self-giving love. Depending on which one is the type of love relationship you have you can have the power in the relationship. The type of love relationship we have can be influenced by culture, gender, and technology. Depending in what culture you were raised in may highly impact on what type of love relationship you have. For example the French scored higher on agape compassionate and selfless, egoless, self-giving love (Murstein, Merighi, Vyse, 1991). United States scored higher on stor age and mania than the French, peaceful, slow, elation and depression. Gender also influences love relationships. The difference between men and women areShow MoreRelatedConflict Essay1375 Words   |  6 PagesConflict essay: the relationship wish Nicole Robinson (davawna Davis) george mason university It is a fact that a lot of people would do anything to avoid a conflict. The truth is that no matter how we try avoiding a conflict, it still exists. It states in the book (Devito, 2010-2011,p.278) that â€Å"conflict is a part of every interpersonal relationship†, it is unheard of to have relationship without having some type of conflict, but the key to it is how it is handled. A conflict in a relationshipRead Moremr dddsdddd1164 Words   |  5 PagesCultural) Axioms of IPC: a. IPC is a transactional process b. IPC is ambiguous c. Interpersonal relationships may be symmetrical or complementary d. IPC refers to content and relationship e. IPC is a series of punctuated events f. IPC is inevitable, irreversible, and unrepeatable Lecture 2: Transactional analysis Parent Self Adult Self Child Self Transactional analysis – basic principles a. Complementary Transaction b. Cross Transaction Lecture 3: The Self in IPC; Perception SelfRead MoreDifference Between A Team And A Group1173 Words   |  5 Pagesoperations such as healthcare organs and other social utilities. Utility refers to the satisfaction that each choice provides to the decision maker. Thus, utility theory assumes that any decision is made on the basis of the utility maximization principle, according to which the best choice is the one that provides the highest utility to the decision maker. 2. Explain difference between a team and a group. p311 A group defined by using four characteristics: (1) two or more people in social interactionRead MoreFive Concepts Important for Successful Communication in an Organization1709 Words   |  7 PagesI will discuss the five concepts that I feel are the most important for successful communication within an organizational setting. I will discuss how to practice active listening, the importance of organizational culture, how to resolve conflict, the key principles of human communication, and the process of formal and informal communication. I will address why they are necessary for successful communication and how best to implement them within your organization. The first concept thatRead MoreThe United States And China1521 Words   |  7 Pagesa complex relationship. The tension between the two powers is related to the communist regime in China. The United States and China have almost always been on opposing sides in a conflict such as the Korean War, the Tibetan uprise, or the race for nuclear weapons. However, just as the United States has grown in power, China has done the same. China is and always has been the most influential state in Asia. While it has been on the world stage for sometime, its economic and military power has beenRead MoreIn The Immortal Words Of Thomas Paine, â€Å"A Constitution1435 Words   |  6 Pagesand limits the powers of the government it creates† (Paine 1805). One of the great debates among Constitutional scholars is just what the exact purpose of Constitutions are. Some argue that Constitutions function as expressions of values of the populace at the time. Others theorize that Constitut ions serve as tools of social coordination. While both of these theories have merit, at the end of the day, Constitutions primarily function as power maps. Ultimately, they express the power dynamics betweenRead More How To Win Friends and Influence people Essay1156 Words   |  5 Pagesare dated but the advice and information can still be used today. It deals with communication with others and the need for all parties to be able to perceive the objective from the others viewpoint. The perspective of the book is from a position of power or management but it can be useful to anyone that reads it. While this book is useful, it should be remembered it was written during a time when the people in the workforce had a very strong protestant work ethic socialized into them. The book is dividedRead MoreEthical Decision Making Case Analysis Essay983 Words   |  4 Pagesno one will believe her. Ethical Issues from Nursing Perspective Trust is critical in the nurse-client relationship because the client is in a vulnerable position. The nurse-client relationship is one of unequal power. Although the nurse may not immediately perceive it, the nurse has more power than the client. Abuse means the misuse of the power imbalance intrinsic in the nurse-client relationship. It can also mean the nurse betraying the client’s trust, or violating the respect. https://www.cno.org/globalassets/docs/prac/41033_therapeuticRead MoreThe Wars At The End Of The Cold War1617 Words   |  7 Pagesthe new century are entirely different from the other ones, mainly since September 11th, 2011. The nature of the strategic environment of the warfare has undergone a series of transformations because of the globalization, technology, economic relationships, and cultural changes. They influence the war and create an environment characterized as volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous (VUCA). This new environment has shifted the con ventional use of arms, likewise, the strategies and the geniusRead More The Importance of Improving Communication Skills in the Business World998 Words   |  4 Pagesgreat example. In my corporate world, being a Caucasian woman is like fighting an uphill battle. No matter how many classes I complete, it does not stop others from asking and responding defensively or seeing me as a threat. Now, I find myself in a conflict with some of the male directors, which affects my emotions, mental state, and personal beliefs. It may be a result of an individuals perceptual and personal discomfort. â€Å"Style, selective perception, halo effect, poor attention and retention, defensiveness

Effects of the Vietnam War Free Essays

Abstract While it takes societies to start wars, war changes societies. Whether it be the loss of life, wealth or influence, war determines what a society becomes. This paper will look at some of the effects on U. We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of the Vietnam War or any similar topic only for you Order Now S. society following the war in Viet Nam. The Effects of the Vietnam War on American Society The Conflict in Southeast Asia had lasting effects on the United States society. It was sold to the American people as necessary to stop the spread of Communism and quickly become one of the longest and costliest wars in U. S. history. Looking at the war strictly from the point-of-view of society, the after effects of the war were staggering. There was weakened public faith in the government and a change in the public image of the American soldier. The loss of national pride was deep. America had effectively lost a war to what Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had called â€Å"a fourth-rate power. † The U. S. was no longer looked at as an invincible giant. Because President Johnson wanted to fund the war without raising taxes, the government deficit skyrocketed. Additionally, troops returning home could not find jobs in the private sector. These factors together caused double digit inflation and unemployment rates. The people felt that the government was not taking care of them like it used to. These factors led to a change in the country’s role around the world. Congress was worried that the world was viewing the U. S. as the planet’s policeman, ready to jump in anytime another country seemed ready to fall victim to Communism. In 1973, the mostly Democratic Congress enacted the War Powers Resolution, which limited the president’s powers. The Commander-in-Chief could only send U. S. troops into combat for less than ninety days without congressional approval. Besides the lack of jobs, returning soldiers were not given parades and hailed by the people as conquering heroes as they were following previous conflicts. Instead, they were viewed with disdain, both for losing the war and for the vicious actions taken by a few soldiers. The hero gave way to the villain, the soldier became the baby-killer. The American sensibilities had changed as well. While soldiers were fighting and dying in Viet Nam, the United States had a few other conflicts within its own borders. Race riots and anti-war protests were shown side by side with battlefield reports on the nightly news. National Guard intervention and the shooting of students at Kent State and Jackson State universities did little to gain support for the government. According to Sen. Frank Church, Viet Nam â€Å"has already stretched the generation gap so wide that it threatens to pull the country apart. † (â€Å"Vietnam War Quotations†, para. 13) Whether the outcome of the war was beneficial or detrimental depends entirely on your point of view. On one hand, the more liberal attitude of government towards foreign intervention, the redefining of the right to protest and the skepticism toward the government can be looked at as positive effects of an unpopular war. On the other hand, the image of the country in the eyes of the world, the loss of traditional values and the blow to the economy can be viewed as negative. No matter what personal stance one has on the Viet Nam Conflict, there is one truth; The War in Southeast Asia definitely changed the United States as a world power, as a country and as a people. References Frey-Wouters, E. , Laufer, R. S. (1986). The Vietnam Generation’s Views of the Combatants. In Legacy of a war: the American soldier in Vietnam. (pp. 108-109). M. E. Sharpe. Sitikoff, H. (n. d. ). The Postwar Impact of Vietnam. Universtiy of Illinois. Retrieved February 18, 2012, from http://www. english. illinois. edu/maps/vietnam/postwar. htm The Vietnam War: An Overview. (n. d. ). The Wars for Viet Nam: 1945 to 1975. Retrieved February 18, 2012, from http://vietnam. vassar. edu/overview/index. html Vietnam War and the American Economy. (n. d. ). History Central. Retrieved February 18, 2012, from http://www. historycentral. com/sixty/Economics/Vietnam. html Vietnam War Quotations. (n. d. ). VietnamWar. net. Retrieved February 18, 2012, from http://www. vietnamwar. net/quotations/quotations. htm How to cite Effects of the Vietnam War, Essay examples

Brooklyn free essay sample

People think when you get older, you mature. I learned that you mature from experience, not by age. I’m not trying to gain any ones sympathy but everything I been through so far, created my outlook how to take on the world, how to take on life. Growing up in Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn was an obstacle that I’m proud I experienced and overcame. Mornings were rowdy at times; I didn’t even need to set an alarm for school because a different car alarm was going off. Waking up 5:30 every morning, taking the 44 bus to the A train and then the A train to the F, going as far as 6 or 7 neighborhoods just to get to school and back home was my daily routine. On my way home it was always dark out, so around this time the streets and subways are full with knavish individuals. Well when isn’t it? I was just more alert as I walked down the sidewalks, with voices following me. We will write a custom essay sample on Brooklyn or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page You could only look straight ahead most of the time because once you eye someone; you just became a threat to them. I always stayed to myself and once I got home safe and sound, I always said a prayer or two. Back then I always wished I could be like the kids on the commercial and just go outside as pleased and play with the same group of friends, problem free. But here, in ‘’Bed-Stuy do or die’’, you had to swivel your head every 3 seconds. I was playing hoops in the public park behind my apartment, by myself but there was a group of gangbangers sitting at a park bench next to me. They were playing with guns like it was a toy! Bagging up drugs and everything else under the tree. It didn’t surprise nor frighten me because I became so accustomed of seeing it go on all the time. Nevertheless an undercover cop came sprinting from the opposite way with his weapon tucked in his blazer. Everyone in the vicinity scattered like little kids when something br eaks in the house. Some went left, others went right, and I ran straight to the front of my building. My heart was beating faster than a Ferrari F430 going top speed. The time it took me to get to my apartment building felt like waiting in a DMV office but it was only a 15 second time span. As I rang my bell so my mom could buzz me in, the baffled cop came swinging around the corner reaching for his gun. He pulled it out, with me lined up with it two yards away from him. I froze, but he wasn’t aiming for me. His target just happened to be running behind me. A bystander said ‘’Shorty, watch out son’’ but even that was a blur to me. My mom buzzed me in and I pushed open the door and ran inside not even thinking once about it. When I told my mom what happened to me, tears came crawling down her cheeks. She knew keeping me out there was just risking my life. This experience alone is the reason why I’m against gangs, why I don’t drink nor do any drugs, and why I’m committed to my future. As a child I always feared the unknown, but living through my experiences in Brooklyn, I grew to learn that I can do anything I set my mind to. Now I’m asking you to take a chance on me.

HUM 2234 Chapter 29 The Romanic Style in Art and Music Flashcard

HUM 2234 Chapter 29 The Romanic Style in Art and Music

Discover the Common Green Darner Dragonfly

Discover the Common Green Darner Dragonfly The common green darner, Anax junius, is one of the best-known North American dragonfly species. The green darner is easy to spot, thanks to its large size and bright green thorax, and can be found almost anywhere in North America. Identifying the Green Darner Dragonfly Green darners are strong fliers  and rarely perch. Look for adults flying low over ponds or bogs during the breeding season. This species migrates seasonally, often forming large swarms when heading south in the fall. Green darners are one of the earliest species to appear in northern habitats in the spring. Both male and female green darners have an unusual blue and black bulls-eye marking on the frons (or forehead, in laymens terms), just in front of their large, compound eyes. The thorax is green in both sexes. The long abdomen is marked by a dark line, which runs down the center of the dorsal surface. In immature common green darners of either sex, the abdomen appears red or purple. Mature males bear a bright blue abdomen, but in the  early morning or when temperatures are cool, it may turn purple. In reproductive females, the abdomen is green, matching the thorax. Older individuals may have an amber tint to their wings. Classification Kingdom - AnimaliaPhylum - ArthropodaClass - InsectaOrder - OdonataFamily - AeshnidaeGenus - AnaxSpecies - junius What do Green Darners Eat? Green darners are predaceous throughout their lives. The large, aquatic nymphs prey on other aquatic insects, tadpoles, and even small fish. Adult green darners catch other flying insects, including butterflies, bees, flies, and even other, smaller dragonflies. Their Life Cycle Follows All Dragonflies Like all dragonflies, the common green darner undergoes simple or incomplete metamorphosis with three stages: egg, nymph (sometimes called larva), and adult. The female green darner oviposits her eggs while in tandem with her mate, and is the only darner in North America to do so. Common green darners oviposit their eggs in aquatic vegetation by carefully cutting a slit in a stem or leaf, and placing the egg inside it. This probably provides her offspring with some protection until it hatches. The aquatic nymph matures over time in the water, molting repeatedly. It then climbs up the vegetation until its above the waters surface, and molts one last time to emerge as an adult. Habitat and Range Green darners live near freshwater habitats, including ponds, lakes, slow-moving streams, and vernal pools. The green darner has an extensive range in North America, from Alaska and southern Canada all the way south to Central America. Anax junius is also found on islands within this geographic range, including Bermuda, the Bahamas, and the West Indies. Sources Field Guide to Dragonflies and Damselflies of New Jersey: Allen E. Barlow, David M. Golden, and Jim Bangma: New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection; 2009.Dragonflies and Damselflies of the West; Dennis Paulson; Princeton University Press; 2009.

The Logistics of Product Recovery (EndofLife) Case Study

The Logistics of Product Recovery (EndofLife) - Case Study Example It is now being realized that producer responsibility needs to be increased in areas of Northern America and to increasingly shift the burden of environmental protection for the government to the producers. This also enables the government to shift the responsibility of economic responsibility from the government to the local taxpayers. The scope for such laws is also being expanded to other non-recyclable wastes such as fluorescent bulbs, paint, mattresses, appliances, mercury thermostats and medical sharps. The use of EPR shall essentially require the formation of a separate and somewhat parallel system of waste management or collection mechanism that is the key to increase the quantity of waste collected. The maximization achieved within the collection system is also responsible for increased industrial as well as consumer participation in management of waste products. The laws help in mandating such convenience in collection methods which is difficult to define (Michelini & Razzoli, 2010). This paper is aimed at analyzing the scope of reverse logistic management and developing of a proper model that would be helpful in EPR management deriving most benefits from reuse and recycle of end-of-life products. The paper suggests the establishment of the OEM takeback methodology for the benefit of companies and the environment because it is the most efficient management technique for wastes. However, it also suggests the use of pooled takeback within the collection mechanism to facilitate convenience and also eliminate the drawbacks of the OEM method by way of using the benefits of pooled takeback in the collection procedure. The components, product, equipment, materials and even the total technical system can go backwards in the supply chain for rework in the manufacturing process so as to facilitate reuse and enhancement of unsatisfactory products on quality and component

Management of the Student and Exchange Visitor Information System Essay

Management of the Student and Exchange Visitor Information System - Essay Example Other concerns have been expressed about the fact that SEVIS system information is kept by record number and not names. Some students have more than one record and this can make it difficult to update the database. Additionally, some contend that SEVIS has placed an added burden on schools, as they are now responsible for noting in the SEVIS system changes of those accompanying the students such as spouses and children. They are required to report on people who are not enrolled in their institutions. Schools are required to note in SEVIS when a student has entered the country, but has not shown up for classes. Thus, schools are supposed to be notified when a student enters at a port of entry, but, reportedly, this does not always happen. Through SEVIS, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) should be able to identify students who have violated the terms of their visas; however, some have questioned whether DHS has the staff to locate all student visa violators, and whether it is a beneficial use of DHS resources to do so. There are also concerns that SEVIS errors will lead to unwarranted enforcement action taken against innocent students. Concerns have been raised about the fact that immigration ser

Organisational behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Organisational behaviour - Essay Example The research is focused on the aspects of the relationships and human behavior inside the organizations. Organizational behavior can be defined as the study of the way people, individual and groups relate in the organizations. Organizational behavior is extremely important, and managers should understand the behavior of their employee in order to build good relationships, and achieve the objectives of people, organization, and the social objectives. Organizational behavior entails the learning human behavior and the way they relate in the work place. A theory is concerns ideas used to explain the relationship of a phenomenon. These ideas are used to expound on the relationships about some aspects in the world. Human behavior is learnt in the societies through the various relationships that human beings engage in their environment. There are various theories used to explain human behavior (Griffin, 2011). The theories of human behavior are explored herein. Social exchange theory was c oined by theorists such as George Homans, John Thibaut, Harold Kelley, and Peter Blau. This theory emphasizes on how people minimize costs and maximize rewards through social exchange. This theory was developed to help understand the social behavior of humans in the economic realm. Another theory of human behavior is the social learning theory. Here, ideas by Albert Bandura as one of the scholars who wrote on social learning theory will be explored. According to Bandura, people in the society learn from each other.

Distinguishing Fear From Anxiety

Distinguishing Fear From Anxiety Introduction Anxiety disorders constitute the largest group of mental diseases in European countries {Andlin-Sobocki et al., 2005, Eur J Neurol, 12 Suppl 1, 1-27}. Human anxiety disorders can be categorized into generalized anxiety disorders, panic attacks, Posttraumatic stress disorders (PTSD), Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and special phobias, are amongst the most prevalent with a 28% lifetime prevalence and an incidence of 18% {Kessler et al., 2005, Arch Gen Psychiatry, 62, 617-27}. Pathological expression of both fear and anxiety are thought to represent certain aspects of anxiety disorders. Specific phobias are considered, as fear disorders, whereas generalized anxiety is viewed as an example of anxiety disorders.   PTSD patients do not only suffer from conditioned fear symptoms to discrete cues that act as a reminder of a previous trauma, but they also exhibit persistent symptoms of sustained anxiety. The regulation of fear and anxiety is the heart of many psychopathological di sorders also reflected in the extremely high comorbidity rate with other mood disorders, such as depression. Up to 90% of individuals expressing an anxiety disorder also develop depression, which could increase suicide rates (Gorman, 1997) and constitutes a significant problem for the community in general. Currently available pharmacotherapies such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), have emerged as effective alternatives to the benzodiazepines and have been paralleled by a similar growth in effective and available psychological treatments, particularly cognitive and cognitive-behavioural therapy. A considerable portion of patients, however, requires long-term treatment throughout the whole life or does not respond at all. For coping with these limitations, focusing on a better understanding of these diseases and improved treatment is urgently needed. Distinguishing fear from anxiety Fear Vs Anxiety Fear- Behavioural manifestation associated with clearly identified imminent threat. Anxiety- Generalized fear without object, an apprehensive anticipation of future potential threats The main function of fear and anxiety is to act as a signal of danger, threat, or motivational conflict, and to trigger appropriate adaptive responses. For some authors, fear and anxiety are indistinguishable, whereas others believe that they are distinct phenomena. In particular fear is a generalized adaptive state of apprehension to an imminent threat (Michael Davis, 2010). It begins rapidly and dissipates rapidly once a threat is removed. Fear is provoked by imminent and real danger, Animals may learn to fear situations in which they have previously been exposed to pain or stress, and subsequently show avoidance behavior when they re-encounter that situation. Young animals may show an innate fear reaction to sudden noise or disturbances in the environment, but rapidly become habituated to them. When they are used to a familiar environment, then a fear of novelty may develop. Ethologists have also made the important observation that fear is often mixed up with other aspects of moti vation. Thus, conflict between fear and approach behavior may results in displacement activities (e.g., self-grooming in rats and mice). Such displacement activities may be the behavioral expression of an anxious state. In contrast anxiety is often elicited by less specific and less predicable threats (Michael Davis, 2010). Anxiety is a generalized response to an unknown threat or internal conflict, whereas fear is focused on known external danger. It has been suggested, anxiety can only be understood by taking into account some of its cognitive aspects, particularly because a basic aspect of anxiety appears to be uncertain. Originally, anxiety is associated with arousal and vigilance, as a result it can be defined as longer lasting state of apprehension that can become pathological if its become extreme.    Defense and coping strategies Fear or anxiety, result in the expression of a range of adaptive or defensive behaviors, which are aimed to escape from the source of danger or motivational conflict. These behaviors depend on the context and the repertoire of the species. Fight or flight, was coined exactly 75 years ago, in 1929, Walter Cannon originally formulated this term for the human response to threat, Fear and anxiety. The phrase fight or flight has influenced the understanding and expectations of both clinicians and patients. However, both the order and the completeness of Cannons famous phrase are suspect. Fight or flight mischaracterizes the ordered sequence of responses that mammals exhibit as a threat escalates or approaches. In recent years, ethologists working with nonhuman primates have clearly established distinct fear responses that proceed sequentially in response to increasing threat. The order of these responses may have important implications for understanding and treating acute stress in humans . The sequence, originally described by Jeffrey A. Gray, begins with what ethologists call the freeze response or freezing, terms corresponding to what clinicians typically refer to as hypervigilance (being on guard, watchful, or hyper-alert). This initial freeze response is the stop, look, and listen response associated with fear. The survival advantage of this response is obvious. Specifically, ethological research has demonstrated that prey that remains frozen during a threat are more likely to avoid detection because the visual cortex and the retina of mammalian carnivores primarily detect moving objects rather than color. Immobilization or freezing, are usually elicited when the threat is inescapable, and is characterized by autonomic inhibition (hypotension, bradycardia), and a more pronounced increase in the neuroendocrine response activation of the hypothalamopituitary-adrenal axis and increased glucocorticoid secretion. This type of passive response was originally described by Engel Schmale as a conservation-withdrawal strategy. The concept of alternative (active/passive) strategies itself owes much to the work of Henry and coworkers. Specific brain circuits appear to mediate distinct coping reactions to different types of stressors. Psychopathological fear/anxiety Although fear acts as a physiological signal of danger, threat, or motivational conflict, it can become pathological and interfere with the ability to survive. Development of specific anxiety disorders, i.e., social phobia, obsessive-compulsive and panic disorders or specific phobias are consequences of pathological fear expression. Anxiety disorders are marked by excessive future fear, often in response to specific objects or situations and in the absence of a true danger. Anxiety disorders are extremely common in the general population. According to a recent epidemiological study, the lifetime prevalence of any anxiety disorder is 28.8% (Kessler et al, 2005). Increased anxiety in animal models, as a trait, can be attributed to at least two sets of factors: (i) a genetic predisposition, essentially linked to the expression of genes that are involved in the various neurochemical mechanisms underlying fear and anxiety; and (ii) the influence of environmental factors. These environmental factors can interact with the expression of the relevant genes during early development and determine the functional properties of the neural and biochemical systems involved in coping with stressful events. They can also modulate the learning processes that occur at a later stage, when the individual is confronted with various life events, and determine the capacity to cope successfully with aversive or threatening situations in adulthood. These predisposing factors, either innate or acquired, determine individual affective styles or coping strategies, which are thought to play an important role in vulnerability to psychopathology. Brain structures and functional circuitry involved in fear/anxiety Limbic System: Emotional brain Limbic areas include the hippocampus (HPC), amygdala, cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus and the bed nucleus of striaterminalis (BNST). Hippocampus and amygdala are considered as a main area involves in emotion, but I will mainly focus on the amygdala. Hippocampus The hippocampus is a part of the forebrain, located in the medial temporal lobe. The hippocampus consists of the dentate gyrus, the Cornu Ammonis fields (CA1-CA3), and the subiculum. The main information input to the hippocampus is via the entorhinal cortex and the main information output from the hippocampus is via the subiculum. Between entorhinal cortex and subiculum, three major pathways of the hippocampus are described. The perforant pathway from entorhinal cortex forms excitatory connections with the granule cells of the dentate gyrus (Bliss and Lomo, 1973). The mossy fiber pathway, formed by the axons of the granule cells of the dentate gyrus, connects the granule cells with the pyramidal cells in the area CA3 of the hippocampus (Lu et al., 1997). The Schaffer collateral pathway connects the pyramidal cells of the CA3 region with the pyramidal cells in the CA1 region of the hippocampus (Collingridge et al., 1983). Amygdala The amygdala is a limbic system structure and is a key target area implicated in emotional processing. It is composed of several interconnected nuclei located in the medial temporal lobes in mammals and is reciprocally linked to sensory cortices, thalamus, and autonomic control centers (Sah et al., 2003). Its internal and external connections permit the amygdala to evaluate environmental stimuli, attach salience to them, then generate appropriate autonomic, endocrine, and behavioral responses (Adolphs, 1999; Rogan LeDoux, 1996; Walker Davis, 2002). In addition, the amygdala is involved in detecting and evaluating emotional expression (Adolphs, 1999). The lateral nucleus of the amygdala (LA) has been implicated as the critical area where sensory stimuli achieve emotional salience. Consequently, the amygdala is needed for proper emotional processing, as in fear and anxiety, memory, and attention (Davis, 1997; Keele, Hughes, Blakeley, Herman, 2008; LeDoux, Cicchetti, Xagoraris, Roma nski, 1990). Plasticity in neurotransmission is important in maintaining the emotional significance of stimuli we encounter (Ehrlich, 2009). However, if those synapses and circuits become super-sensitized, what was once adaptive emotional behaviors can become psychopathologies, such as anxiety disorders and depression (Keele, 2005; Rosen Shulkin, 1998). Amygdala structure The amygdaloid complex is comprised of 13 nuclei, which are further divided into 3 groups: the basolateral complex, the cortical nuclei, and the centromedial nuclei. The basolateral complex is composed primarily of the basolateral (BLA) and lateral (LA) amygdala nuclei (Keele et al., 2008; Sah et al., 2003). Neuroanatomical studies reveal that there are extensive internuclear and reciprocal intranuclear connections (Pitkanen, Savander, LeDoux, 1997). Physiological studies further suggest that the amygdala nuclei are primarily individual functional units with the flow of information through the amygdala being highly organized, as seen in fear conditioning studies (LeDoux, 2000). Sensory afferents (context + tone) terminate in the LA (Romanski, Clugent, Bordi, LeDoux, 1993). The information proceeds in a predominantly unidirectional flow from the lateral to medial at which point the LA sends glutamatergic projections to the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), as well the BLA and o ther nuclei (Sah et al., 2003; Pitkanen et al., 1997; Smith Par eacute;, 1994). The CeA, where much of the amygdala nuclei projections converge and insubstantial intra-amygdaloid fibers exit, constitutes the output of the amygdala (Sah et al., 2003; Pitkanen et al., 1997). Two main cell types have been described morphologically and physiologically in the BLA (Rainnie, Asprodini, Shinnick-Gallagher, 1993; Sah et al., 2003). The first type is glutamatergic projection neurons that give off collaterals within the nucleus. They account for 70% of the neuronal population (McDonald, 1982). Their secondary and tertiary dendrites appear spiny, distinguishing them from the other neuronal type (Sah et al., 2003). In the LA, pyramidal neurons account for about 95% of the population. Pyramidal neurons show broad action potentials and spike frequency accommodation of varying degrees, and express N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA), a-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA), and k ainate receptors. Main input to these neurons is cortical and thalamic, but they are highly modulated by interneurons and monoaminergic afferents from brain stem nuclei (Marowsky, Yanagawa, Obata, Vogt., 2005; Rainnie, 1999; Sah et al., 2003; Sullivan, Coplan, Kent, Gorman, 1999). The second type of neurons is interneurons, also called stellate cells (Sah et al., 2003). They account for 5-10% of the neurons in the BLA and are local circuit gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) releasing cells with short duration action potentials and no spike frequency accommodation. AMPA receptors are expressed but NMDA receptors are reportedly absent (Sah et al., 2003). Like the projection neurons, input is cortical and thalamic with modulatory input from brainstem nuclei (Lang and Par eacute;, 1998). Afferent and Efferent Connectivity Amygdala innervation consists of sensory input from the thalamus and cerebral cortex and autonomic input from the hypothalamus and brain stem (Keele et al., 2008; Sah et al., 2003). All sensory modalities glutamatergically project to the amygdala via the thalamus, sensory cortices, association cortices, and other polymodal cortical areas (McDonald, 1998; Romanski LeDoux, 1993; Sah et al., 2003). Brain stem projections provide monoaminergic modulation of the amygdala. There is extensive serotonergic innervation from the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), dopaminergic innervation from the ventral tegmental area, and noradrenergic innervation from the locus coeruleus (Clayton Williams, 2000;Marowsky et al., 2005; McIntyre, Power, Roozendaal, McGaugh, 2003; Rainnie, 1999). Main output of the amygdala is projected from the CeA. Lesion and stimulation studies have shown cortical, hypothalamic, and brain stem regions to be target areas, directly and indirectly through projections to the bed nuc leus of the stria terminalis (Iwata, Chida, LeDoux, 1987; LeDoux, Iwata, Cicchetti, Reis, 1988; LeDoux, 2000; Sah et al., 2003; Turner, Mishkin, Knapp, 1980; Walker Davis, 2002). CeA efferents modulate specific behavioral and autonomic responses to fear, anxiety, and stress (Davis, 1997; Rosen Schulken, 1998; Sah et al., 2003). The CeAs connection to the hypothalamus allows activation of the sympathetic nervous system, such as an increase in heartbeat, galvanic skin response, and pupil dilation in response to fear. For inducing behavioral responses to fear, there are projections from the CeA to brainstem nuclei. For instance, connections with the periaqueductal gray induce freezing behavior and with the nucleus reticularis pontis caudalis (PnC) increase acoustic startle response (Davis, 1992). The brainstem innervation is so extensive that the amygdala contacts almost every brainstem region involved in autonomic functioning (Keele et al., 2008; LeDoux, 1992; Price, 2003). Behavioral Function The amygdalas contribution to emotion has long been documented. Initially, monkey bilateral temporal lobectomy studies performed by Klà ¼ver and Bucy (1937 1939), resulted in agnosia, hyperorality, hypersexuality, social withdrawl, difficulty recognizing emotionality of objects, and placidity. This became known as Klà ¼ver-Bucy syndrome. In following amygdalectomy studies a loss of fear, aggression, and normal social interactions with an increase in exploration was found (Goddard, 1964; Aggleton Young, 2000). Rodent lesion studies further demonstrated decreased active fear avoidance (Poremba Gabriel, 1999) and decreased passive conditioned fear response (Roozendaal, Koolhaas, Bohus, 1993), for instance, amygdala lesioned rats fail to show freezing behavior in the presence of danger, such as a cat (Blanchard Blanchard, 972). Specific lesioning of the lateral nucleus of the amygdala blocked conditioned fear (LeDoux et al., 1990). Amygdalectomized humans also show impairments in fear conditioning (LaBar, LeDoux, Spencer, Phelps, 1995). Additionally, human subjects do not recognize fear from facial expressions, voices, (Adolphs, Tranel, Damasio, Damasio, 1995), or music (Gosselin et al., 2005), and judge deceitful looking individuals as trustworthy (Adolphs, Tranel, Damasio, 1998). Stimulation and activation studies further corroborate amygdala lesion evidence. Human amygdala stimulation often produces observable fear responses as well as subjective feelings of fear (for review see Davis, 1992). Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) further shows activation of the amygdala during viewing of fearful faces (Rosen Donley, 2006) and following fear conditioning when the conditioned stimulus is presented (LaBar, Gatenby, Gore, LeDoux, Phelps, 1998). In animals, amygdala stimulation shows an increase in behaviors, such as, vigilance, attention, and arousal (Rosen Schulkin, 1998) and an increase in autonomic responding; such as, respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure (for review see Davis, 1992). Additional emotions reported in humans have been anger and rage (Joseph, 2000). One female subject displayed enraged facial expressions, lips retracted and grimacing, then progressed to aggressive behavior and attack (Mark, Ervin, Sweet, 1972). These are emotional behavior autonomic responses that are often a component of the fear response. Fear Conditioning and Long-Term Potentiation One commonly used technique for studying amygdala function in both animals and humans is conditioned fear learning (Bà ¼chel, Morris, Dolan, Friston, 1998; Walker Davis 2002). To accomplish this type of learning a neutral sensory stimulus (conditioned stimulus or CS, often a light or tone) is paired with a noxious stimulus (unconditioned stimulus or US) such as a mild electric shock. Upon repeated US-CS pairing the learned association between the two stimuli elicits a behavioral response (conditioned response or CR) that can last indefinitely with o nly a few pairings (Maren, 2005). The convergence of the cortical sensory input and thalamic relays from the spinothalamic tract in the amygdala as well as the abolishment of learned fear response after amygdala lesions implicate it as the site for conditioned fear learning (LeDoux et al., 1990; Ledoux, 2000). The learned association as well as the fear behavioral response is seen across many species and has been extensively studied in rats, cats, primates, and humans. The neural mechanisms have also been conserved across these animal species and probably humans as well (LeDoux, 1996; Price, 2003). Long-term potentiation (LTP) functions as a mechanism for increasing synaptic strength between two neurons. Experimentally it can be induced by tetanic stimulation of afferent fibers; however, naturally occurring similar mechanisms are induced in the LA during conditioned fear learning (McKernan Shinnick-Gallagher, 1997; Rogan LeDoux, 1996; LeDoux, 2000). Support comes from the observat ion that before conditioning, neurons in the LA respond to CS and US input. After conditioning, the postsynaptic neurons response to the CS is greatly enhanced. This suggests that fear conditioning provides a suitable means for examining amygdala synaptic plasticity and fear circuitry. The proposed LTP molecular mechanism initiating fear conditioning is that the CS induces a release of glutamate, which activates the glutamatergic receptors on postsynaptic LA neurons. The US further depolarizes the neurons causing the release of the Mg2+ block in the NMDA receptors (NMDARs) allowing an influx of Ca2+. The additional Ca2+ initiates second messenger cascades that are responsible for the increased neuronal response to the CS. Blocking NMDARs with the antagonist DL-2-amino-5- phosphonovalerate (APV) prevents the acquisition of fear conditioning. If APV is delivered after training it does not affect the consolidation of the fear memory further supporting the necessary involvement of NMDAR s in the LTP mechanism. Ca2+ influx due to L-type voltage-gated calcium channels (L-VGCCs) is also required for the association to occur. The L-VGCCs may be opening in response to the strong depolarization from the US, especially when postsynaptic spiking and back-propagating action potentials occur. How learned fear memories are acquired and the mechanisms involved is essential to understanding normal amygdala functioning. Fear conditioning provides a means for studying dysfunction of fear circuitry and the resulting abnormal fear behaviors. Fear circuitry receives intense inhibitory modulation. When the inhibition is removed the fear conditioning mechanisms, such as LTP, are unmodulated and the circuitry enters a hyperexcited state. This could potentially lead to abnormally enhanced fear associations resulting in heightened fear responses. Manipulating the fear circuitry by altering inhibitory modulators and then assessing the fear behavior responses could elucidate the mechanisms leading to fear and anxiety disorders. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) system: Involvement in fear and anxiety NPY: Overview Neuropeptide Y(NPY) was isolated from porcine brain more than two decades ago (Tatemoto et al., 1982). This 36-amino-acid residue is one of the most abundant peptides found in the central nervous system (CNS) of all mammals, including humans {Chan-Palay et al., 1985; Chan-Palay et al., 1986}. It is one of the most conserved peptides in evolution (Larhammar, 1996; Larhamar and Salaneck, 2004), suggesting an important role in the regulation of basic physiological functions (Larhammar et al., 1993). At present, five NPY receptor subtypes have been cloned and designated-Y1, Y2, Y4, Y5, and y6 (Dumont et al., 1993; Gehlert, 1994; Michel et al., 1998)-all of which couple to Gi/o proteins and inhibit the production of cyclic AMP (Palmiter et al., 1998). NPY has important modulatory functions in the immune and cardiovascular systems (Song et al., 1996; Michalkiewicz et al., 2001), circadian rhythms (Antonijevic et al., 2000; Yannielli and Harrington, 2001), food intake (Jolicoeur et al., 199 5), and seizure (Husum et al., 1998; Colmers and El Bahh, 2003) and the response to pain (Munglani et al., 1996). NPY is involved in anxiety related behaviors (Thorsell and Heilig, 2002), and there is increasing support for the role of NPY in mood disorders such as depression (Redrobe et al., 2002a). It is constantly reported that NPY producing anxiolytic-like effect and can be observed different battery of behavioral tests like elevated plus maze, light dark, open field, and stressed induced hyperthermia. Consistent findings across different rodent modes have been proving the true anxiolytic effect of NPY. The presence of different NPY receptors and the plethora of NPY-induced behavioral effect raise the question as to whether NPY and its receptors have an effect on fear, and extinction of conditioned fear. The NPY Y1 receptors can be found in number of brain regions but prominent in cerebral cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus (Kask et al., 2002). The majority of studies have been proved the involvement of NPY Y1 receptor in the regulation of anxiety. In the present study I am focusing on fear reducing properties of NPY following the hypothesis that anxiolytic-like effect of NPY mediated my Y1 receptors.

Macbeth :: essays research papers

Have your ever seen a play? Plays can be the most wonderful thing in the world. Plays begain takin play hundreds of years ago. The one play that was played years ago is still looked at to be one of the best plays ever to have steped foot on the stage. The play is called Macbeth and was first performed in the summer of 1606 with James and the visiting king of Denmark in attendance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The play was writted by Shakespear in thought to please King James and account for the prominence of witchcraft in Macbeth. In that time witches were feared by the less educated people. No one wanted to spread of witch's they thought that witches use accusations of witchcraft as a way to get rid of political enemies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the play Macbeth there were a couple people that influenced Macbeth to do the bad things or things that he did to be come King and to stay King. I think the biggest influnce of them all was Lady Macbeth she made Macbeth kill the king. At first when she asked him to kill the king Macbeth didnt want to there was no reason for it. But then she called him names and told him how much of a coward he was and that he had to honor. She told Macbeth what to do all the time and when she didnt get her was Macbeth was in trouble. Lady Macbeth was very spoiled if you ask me she needed to get her way and she would do aneything it took to have it like that.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There were others in the story that influnced Macbeth to do things that he normaly wouldnt do and that was the witches. The witches had a big part of the play but were thought to be added in after the play was taken. But the witches influenced and told Macbeth that people were goin to talk to castle from him and they made he not care about aneything. The only thing that Macbeth cared about was King. Like when Lady Macbeth died he didnt care he didnt have time to care or think about his lost wife his King ship was on the line. LadyMacbeth was thought to be a witch but was never proven to be. Like witchs couldnt have kids and LadyMacbeth couldnt eather.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Macbeth's character change form the beginning of the story to the end.